Senin, 19 November 2012

More on Writing Historical Fiction

Writing historical fiction - where to start
There are two possible starting points for a writing a historical novel:
  • You can start with a character or story idea... then do research to find the perfect historical time period and place to fit it.
  • You can start with an interest in a particular historical time period... then imagine characters that might have been living there or a story that might have taken place.

How to Write Historical Fiction

How to write historical fiction - What is historical fiction?
Historical fiction is a category for novels and stories that take place in past times (usually more than fifty years before when the author wrote them).

How to Write Romance

How to write romance: what's a romance novel?
The broadest definition of a romance novel is simply... a novel focused on a central love story. But the term romance novel is normally used for specific types of commercial fiction.

How to Write Fantasy

How to write fantasy - what's a fantasy novel?
Fantasy is a genre or category of fiction that is about things that are generally considered to be impossible. This includes magic, and magical creatures such as elves, dragons, and unicorns (the tooth fairy is, of course, real). Fantasy is often based on myths, legends, and folklore, and frequently includes elements from the Middle Ages. It tends to be action-packed, including quests or adventures. A conflict between good and evil is a common subject in fantasy.

How to Write Science Fiction

How to write science fiction - what is science fiction?
There are lots of definitions of science fiction out there. But basically, science fiction is the end of the equation: reality + what-if = ...?
  • What if there is intelligent life on other planets?
  • What if we could time travel?
  • What if we invented robots that could write bestsellers?

How to Write a Thriller

T
his page talks about how to write a thriller. It is just one of many creative lessons on this website with tips for writing a novel or a short story. At the bottom of the page, you'll find links more pages on how to write fiction, plus the chance to take a free creative writing course.

How to Write a Mystery

This page offers tips and advice on how to write a mystery. This is just one of many pages on this site about how to write different types of fiction. At the bottom, you'll find links to more creative writing lessons.

Tips for Writing a Novel: So You've Got an Idea -- What Now?

Taking your idea to the next level
Different fiction writers have different approaches for getting started. Here are some of your options:

Where to Find Creative Writing Ideas

Tips for generating creative writing ideas

  • Keep a journal - Record your observations, things that happen to you and how they feel, stories you hear from your friends, curious events on the news, gossip, memories. Any of these can become the seed of a story, novel, or poem. And you can go back to your journal as you're writing to find the details and descriptions that will make your scenes seem real.

Essential Elements of a Novel

Elements of a novel: Character
Characters are the imaginary people you write about in your fiction or drama. Examples of fictional characters: Harry Potter, Hamlet, Oliver Twist, Cinderella.
The main character of your story is called the protagonist.

Types of Novels and Which One You Should Write

Here you'll find explanations of different types of novels, along with novel writing tips. Curious about how to write romance, science fiction, thrillers, fantasy, historical novels...? Read on!
This is just one of many pages on this website about how to write a novel. At the bottom of the page, you'll find links to more pages with creative writing ideas and advice.

How to Write Poems - Poetry Techniques 3

This is Part 3 of the CWN series on How to Write Poems. 
How to write poems - poetry problems you can avoid
Here are some common problems that often hurt the poetry of new writers. Of course, there is no law against doing any of these things; you can try to get away with them if you want. But you have a better chance of writing a good poem if you can avoid them.

Types of Poems

Here you'll find explanations of different types of poems, with poetry ideas and creative writing prompts to try them yourself! At the bottom of the page, you'll find links to read about more poem types and techniques.

Rhyme Schemes

This page is an introduction to rhyme schemes. Do you know the pattern of a limerick, a sonnet? How to write a poem with special sound effects? More below!
This is just one of many pages on this website about poetry techniques. At the bottom, you'll find links to more pages about how to write poetr

Poetry Meter

This page explains what poetry meter is... and why you should care. This is just one of many pages on the CWN website about poetry techniques and how to write poetry. At the bottom of the page, you'll find links to related topics such as poem structure and rhyme schemes.

Poem Structure - Lines and Stanzas

This page is an introduction to poem structure and poetry techniques. What’s the best way to divide your poetry into lines? (Hint: "at random" is not the right answer!) Learn more below.
This is just one of many pages on this website about how to write poetry. At the bottom of the page, you'll find links to related poetry topics.

How to Write a Poem - Poetry Techniques 2

Poetry techniques - expressing the invisible
In Part 1 of this series, I talked about how to choose something to write about, and how to start turning your subject into the poem. The poetry techniques I've recommended all have to do with careful observation of your subject matter. But what if you're not writing about a person, place, animal, plant, or thing, but about a feeling or an abstract concept such as Love or Death? How can you observe and describe something that can't actually be seen or heard?

How to Write a Poem - Poetry Techniques 1

Here are some tips that can help you write better poetry.
How to write a poem - what to write about?
The first step in any poem is coming up with something to write about. Don't feel that you have to choose profound or "poetic" material. Anything can be the subject for a poem. Great poems have been written about such topics as a gas station (Elizabeth Bishop,"The Filling Station"), a clothesline full of laundry (Richard Wilbur, "Love Calls Us to the Things of the World"), and pieces of broken glass on the beach ("Amy Clampitt, "Beach Glass"

A Definition of Poetry

Here, you'll find a definition of poetry based on some of its important characteristics. This is just one of many pages on this website about poetry techniques, types of poetry, and how to write poems. At the bottom of this page, you'll find links to related topics.

Minggu, 18 November 2012

BLC (Building Learning Commitment) 4

BAB I
PENDAHULUAN

Latar belakang masalah
Pegawai Negeri Sipil (PNS) adalah pekerja pada instansi Pemerintah yang terdiri dari berbagai unsur dan jenis sesuai dengan tugas dan fungsinya didalam bekerja akan membutuhkan kerjasama dengan pihak-pihak terkait, atau mereka butuh jaringan/jejaring kerja, yang pada umumnya disebut tim kerja. 

Sabtu, 17 November 2012

BLC (Building Learning Commitment) 3


Tipe Tactile

Karakteristik
Kecenderungan Sifat
Penerimaan Informasi
Senang dg sensasi di kulit, Sentuhan,Menggerakkan tangan dan jari, Merasakannya secara fisik dan emosi. (eksperimen, praktek)
Sensifitas pd Lingkungan
Sensitif pada sensasi fisik, Peduli pada perasaan Orang lain. Paham pada komunikasi non verbal
Gerakan Mata
Tidak hanya mengamati orang lain dan mimik wajah, tapi menjadi pendengar yang baik.
Cara Berbicara
Senang berbicara sambil memegang tangan atau sesuatu
Memori
Sangat bagus dlm penampilan visual link, dan yg nampak dlm grafik.

Tipe Visual
Karakteristik
Kecenderungan Sifat
Penerimaan Informasi
Senang melihat menggunakan alat bantu visual atau langsung (LCD, Handout)
Sensifitas pd Lingkungan
Sensitif pd lingkungan visual, lingk. Menarik, tidak menyukai ketidak serasian pandangan.
Perhatian saat bertemu Orang baru
Wajah , pakaian dan penampilan
Gerakan Mata
Saat berfikir menatap langit-langit, mendengar dg menatap orang yg berbicara.
Cara Berbicara
Senang menggambarkan elemen visual
Memori
Sangat bagus dlm penampilan visual link, dan yg nampak dlm grafik.

BLC (Building Learning Commitment) 2


Mengenal Diri Sendiri dan Orang Lain
         Pada bagian tengah kertas gambarlah suatu gambar yang mencerminkan diri sendiri
         Pada bagian kanan atas, tuliskan perilaku positip dan kiri atas dengan perilaku negatip
         Pada bagian kiri bawah, tuliskan cara belajar yang disukai dan pada kanan bawah cara belajar yang tidak disukai
         Pada bagian tengah bawah tulis hobby

BLC (Building Learning Commitment) 1


For what ?
1.      Mengenal diri dan mengenal orang lain
2.      dengan lebih baik.
3.      Menjalin komunikasi yang harmonis
4.      Membangun kebersamaan dan rasa percaya diri.
5.      Merumuskan komitmen belajar

Sabtu, 10 November 2012

Gabungan Metode Pengajaran langsung (Direct Method) dengan Permainan dalam Belajar Bahasa Inggris


Bahasa Inggris saat ini telah menjadi Bahasa Internasional. Setiap negara menggunakan bahasa ini sebagai alat untuk berkomunikasi dan menjalin suatu kerjasama antar negara dalam berbagai bidang. Hal tersebut tidak dapat dipungkiri bahwa Bahasa Inggris juga menjadi bahasa yang penting dalam dunia pendidikan.

Metode Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris SD

Globalisasi saat ini telah melanda dunia. Dunia yang luas sudah menjadi seolah-olah sempit. Interaksi antar manusia dalam wujud tertentu sudah tidak dapat dibatasi oleh ruang dan waktu. Interaksi tersebut salah satunya dalam bentuk komunikasi.

Kind of Prose Fiction and Non-fiction

1.      A novel is a book of long narrative in literary prose. The genre has historical roots both in the fields of the medieval and early modern romance and in the tradition of the novella. The latter supplied the present generic term in the late 18th century.
The present English (and Spanish) word derives from the Italian novella for "new", "news", or "short story of something new", itself from the Latin novella, a singular noun use of the neuter plural of novellus, diminutive of novus, meaning "new". Most European languages have preserved the term "romance" (as in French and German "Roman", and in Portuguese "Romance") for extended narratives.The English and Spanish decisions came with the 17th-century fashion of shorter exemplary histories.

a.       Mystery
Mystery fiction is a loosely-defined term that is often used as a synonym for detective fiction or crime fiction— in other words a Italic text novel or short story in which a detective (either professional or amateur) investigates and solves a crime. Sometimes mystery books are nonfiction. The term "mystery fiction" may sometimes be limited to the subset of detective stories in which the emphasis is on the puzzle element and its logical solution (cf. whodunit), as a contrast to hardboiled detective stories, which focus on action and gritty realism. However, in more general usage "mystery" may be used to describe any form of crime scene fiction, even if there is no mystery to be solved. For example : Harry Potter by J.K Rowling

a.       Romance
The romance novel is a literary genre developed in Western culture, mainly in English-speaking countries. Novels in this genre place their primary focus on the relationship and romantic love between two people, and must have an "emotionally satisfying and optimistic ending." Through the late 20th and early 21st centuries, these novels are commercially in two main varieties: category romances, which are shorter books with a one-month shelf-life, and single-title romances, which are generally longer with a longer shelf-life. For example: Romeo and Juliet by Shakespeare.
b.      Detective
The detective story is a genre of fiction in which a detective, either an amateur or a professional, solves a crime or a series of crimes. Because detective stories rely on logic, supernatural elements rarely come into play. The detective may be a private investigator, a policeman, an elderly widow, or a young girl, but he or she generally has nothing material to gain from solving the crime. Subgenres include the cozy and the hard-boiled detective story. For example: Sherlock Holmes
2.      Historical fiction tells a story that is set in the past. That setting is usually real and drawn from history, and often contains actual historical persons, but the principal characters tend to be fictional. Writers of stories in this genre, while penning fiction, attempt to capture the manners and social conditions of the persons or time(s) presented in the story, with due attention paid to period detail and fidelity. Historical fiction is found in books, magazines, art, television, film, theater, and other media.
Historical fiction presents readers with a story that takes place during a notable period in history, and usually during a significant event in that period. Historical fiction often presents actual events from the point of view of fictional people living in that time period.
In some historical fiction, famous events appear from points of view not recorded in history, with fictional characters either observing or actively participating in these actual events. Historical figures are also often shown dealing with these events while depicting them in a way that has not been previously recorded. Other times, a historical event is used to complement a story's narrative, occurring in the background while characters deal with situations (personal or otherwise) wholly unrelated to that historical event. Sometimes, the names of people and places have been in some way altered. For examples: Magic Tree House series, The King of Mazy May.
3.      A fable is a very short story which promises to illustrate or teach us a lesson which is also called a moral. Usually if not always, fables are stories having animal characters that talk like humans. Many common sayings come from Aesops Fables like "Honesty is the best policy," and "Look before you leap" are familiar examples of fables. Aesop is believed to have been a Greek slave who made up these stories. Nobody is really sure if Aesop made up these fables. What is certain, however, is that the Aesop's Fables are timeless. They are so wonderful that they have been told over and over again for several thousand years. Here are some of the most popular fables of all times I hope you like them.
A fable is a short allegorical tale emphasizing on a moral or any principle of behavior. The characters of fables are usually animals that portray like human beings, though they keep their animal traits intact. The moral of these fables is highlighted towards the end of the story in the form of a proverb and is generally enacted. The oldest fables describe stories of why crows are black, or why different animals display different characteristics, such as a sly fox, a dignified lion, and so on. The earliest fables came from Greece and India, while the oldest Western fables were those of Aesop.
4.      A fairy tale is a story intended for children, often involving some fanciful creature or extraordinary adventure. Contemporary fairy tales often have a moral or ethical undercurrent to the story, a "lesson" to be learned. A technical definition of fairy tales from yourDictionary.com says that they are a "fanciful tale of legendary deeds and creatures, usually intended for children.
Stories of kings, princesses, poor farmers, and queens are not new to any one of us. They are generally guided by supernatural or magical events that fascinate us to get engrossed in them. These short stories are nothing but fairy tales. They are distinguished by generalized characters without being individualized or localized; thus, the names ‘a king’, ‘a queen’, ‘a poor farmer’, and ‘a princess’. Fairy tales begin with misfortunes graduating towards undergoing adventures and solving mysteries, and ending in a happily-ever-after mode, thereby rewarding the virtue. These stories often revolve around charms, magic, disguise, and spells. Hans Christian Andersen (Danish), Basile (Italian), the Grimm Brothers (German), Perrault (French), and Keightley and Croker (English) are known to create some of the most famous collections of fairy tales.
5.      A short story is fictional work of prose that is shorter in length than a novel
Because of the shorter length, a short story usually focuses on one plot, one main character (with a few additional minor characters), and one central theme, whereas a novel can tackle multiple plots and themes, with a variety of prominent characters.
What are some of the elements that make up a good story?
a) A short story is a piece of prose fiction which can be read at a single sitting.
b) It ought to combine matter-of-fact description with poetic atmosphere.
c) It ought to present a unified impression of temper, tone, colour, and effect.
d) It mostly shows a decisive moment of life (which can entail a fatal blow).
e) There is often little action, hardly any character development, but we get a snapshot of life.
f) Its plot is not very complex (in contrast to the novel), but it creates a unified impression and leaves us with a vivid sensation rather than a number of remembered facts.
g) There is a close connection between the short story and the poem as there is both a unique union of idea and structure.
The short story is a piece of art that tries to give us a specified impression of the world we live in. It aims to produce a single narrative effect with the greatest economy of means and utmost emphasis.
NON-FICTION
1.       An essay is a short piece of writing which is often written from an author's personal point of view. Essays can consist of a number of elements, including: literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author. The definition of an essay is vague, overlapping with those of an article and a short story. Almost all modern essays are written in prose, but works in verse have been dubbed essays (e.g. Alexander Pope's An Essay on Criticism and An Essay on Man). While brevity usually defines an essay, voluminous works like John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Thomas Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population provide counterexamples.
In some countries (e.g., in the United States), essays have become a major part of formal education. Secondary students are taught structured essay formats to improve their writing skills, and admission essays are often used by universities in selecting applicants and, in the humanities and social sciences, as a way of assessing the performance of students during final exams. The concept of an "essay" has been extended to other mediums beyond writing. A film essay is a movie that often incorporates documentary film making styles and which focuses more on the evolution of a theme or an idea. A photographic essay is an attempt to cover a topic with a linked series of photographs; it may or may not have an accompanying text or captions.
2.       In a sense, autobiography (from the Greek eauton = self, bios = life and graphein = write) is a form of biography, the writing of a life story. The difference, of course, is point of view: an autobiography is from the viewpoint of its subject. Biographers generally rely on a wide variety of documents and viewpoints; an autobiography may be based entirely on the writer's memory. A name for such a work in Antiquity was an apologia, essentially more self-justification than introspection. John Henry Newman's autobiography is his Apologia pro vita sua. Augustine applied the title Confessions to his autobiographical work (and Jean-Jacques Rousseau took up the same title). The pagan rhetor Libanius framed his life memoir as one of his orations, not the public kind, but the literary kind that would be read aloud in the privacy of one's study.
A memoir is slightly different from an autobiography. Where an autobiography focuses on the "life and times" of the character, a memoir has a narrower, more intimate focus on his or her own memories, feelings and emotions.
For example, the autobiography of an American Civil War general might include sections on the nature of slavery, the origins of the Civil War, and the political career of Abraham Lincoln. But the memoir of a Civil War general would focus on his personal reasons for joining the battle, the effect of the war on his mind and soul, and the joy and fear he felt on the battlefield.

3.       Journals
A journal is a continued series of writings made by a person in response to their life experiences and events. Diaries contain a description of daily events. A journal may include those descriptions, but it also contains reflections on what took place and expresses emotions and understandings about them. It doesn't matter what you call your writing, either a diary or journal, as long as you see the distinction between these two ways of writing.

4.       Articles
Article must be fresh and written on subject or product which we wish to describe. Article writing service must be done by good writer who have strong knowledge in subject or products it describes.
Example: Computers and Education in America-In the last decade, computers have invaded every aspect of education, from kindergarten through college. The figures show that schools have spent over two billion dollars installing two million new computers. Recently, with the explosive increase of sites on the Internet, computers have taken another dramatic rise. In just five years, the number of Internet hosts has skyrocketed from 2 million to nearly 20 million.
ELEMENT OF PROSE
1.      Theme: The overall idea of what is the story all about.
Ideas, or thoughts that underlie a major literary work is called a theme. The theme is something that became the basis of the story, something that permeates the story, or something that the subject matter in the story.
The theme is the soul of all parts of the story. Therefore, the theme became the basis for developing the whole story. Theme in many ways is "binding" the presence or absence of events, conflicts and situations, including also various other intrinsic elements.
The theme is stated explicitly that (mentioned) and some are declared implicitly (without mention but understood).
In determining the theme, the author is influenced by several factors, among others: personal interests, tastes of readers, and wishes the publisher or ruler.
In a literary work, besides there is a central theme, often there is also the theme side. The central theme is a theme that became the center of a whole series of events in the story. The theme is a byproduct of other themes that accompany the central theme.
2.      Setting: Refers to the place and time.
Setting is all the information, instructions, reference in respect of time, space, atmosphere, and the situation of the events in the story. Setting can be divided into three main elements:
a. Setting places, referring to the location of the events recounted in a work of fiction.
b. Setting of time, dealing with the problem of 'when' the occurrence of the events recounted in a work of fiction.
c. Social setting, refer to matters relating to social behavior in a place that is told in a work of fiction. Social background could include living habits, customs, traditions, beliefs, outlook on life, ways of thinking and being, and social status.
3.      Plot: Plot is a sequence or series of incidents in the story. Plot can be constructed based on three things:
a.         Based on the order time (chronology). plot is so-called linear plot.
b.      Based on the causal relationship (causal). Plot is so-called causal flow.
c.       Based on the theme of the story. The flow is so-called thematic groove. In the grooved thematic story, every event as if it stood alone. If one episode removed the story can still be understood.
d.      The plot structure is as follows:
1. The initial part consists of: 1) exposition, 2) stimulation , and 3) rising action.
2. The middle part, consisting of: 4) conflict, 5) complication, and 6) climax.
3. The final section, consisting of: 7) falling action, and 8 counclusion.
In building a plot, there are some important factors to consider for a dynamic flow. Important factors are:
1. Probability factor. That is, the events of the story should not always be realistic but it makes sense.
2. Surprise factor. That is, the events should not be directly predictable / recognized by the reader.
3. Coincidence factor. Namely unexpected events occur, by chance happen.
The combination or variation of the three factors that cause flow tersebutlah become dynamic.
The thing that should be avoided in the groove is aberration (digresi). Aberration is the events or episodes that are not associated with the core story or deviate from the subject matter at hand in the story.
Arrangement of events in the story. Under plot , it have:
            A. Introduction
            b. Conflict
            c. Climax
            d. Falling action
            e. Resolution
TYPES OF PLOT:
A. Circular: Flashback
b. Linear: Foreshadowing
c. In medias res: In the middle of the things
4. Characters, under characters it have: 
    A. Protagonist: Actor/ bida
    b. Antagonist: Enemy/ contrabida
5. Conflict
  a. Man vs. Man
  b. Man vs. Nature
  c. Man vs. Society
  d. Man vs. Himself
6. Point of view
    a. First person
    b. Third person Anonymous

Principles, Theories and Practice of Second Language Acquisition

Second language acquisition has continuity with the first language acquisition. The term second language acquisition is the acquisition of which began at age 3 or 4 years. Second language acquisition is important for each individual to be able to interact properly in its environment. For most children in Indonesia, the Indonesian language is not their first language, but a second language, or third. Introduction / Indonesian mastery can occur through a process of acquisition or the learning process. Acquisition process occurs naturally, unconsciously, through no formal interaction with parents and / or peers, without guidance.

 A.    Principle
According to Barcroft there are five principles in second language acquisition, including:
1)      Present new words frequently and repeatedly in the input.
The more frequently Learners are exposed to language foreign vocabulary; the more Likely They are to remember it. That most studies suggest the need Between 5-16 Learners 'meetings' with a word in order to retain it. Every word and phrase must be entered correctly Identified multiple times to Obtain the highest score, while the variety of exercises and activities prevents this from being boring repetition.
2)      Use meaning-bearing comprehensible input when presenting new words.
In order for Learners to successfully make-the Association between a foreign language word and its meaning, that meaning must be conveyed in a comprehensible manner. One method for making foreign terms comprehensible and Thus Spake promoting vocabulary learning is to present each word in a variety of ways.
3)      Limit forced output during the initial stages of learning new words.
Forcing language Learners to rush into sentence formation can interfere with learning vocabulary during the beginning stages of acquiring a new language. Instead, Learners should be given time to absorb the meanings of individual words at Their Own Pace before being required to use them in a larger context. Language Learners who take that time are far more Likely to use the words entered correctly when They do choose to form sentences.

4)      Limit forced semantic elaboration during the initial stages of learning new words.
In Addition to not forcing beginning language Learners to Immediately Produce whole sentences, a vocabulary program should also avoid other Kinds of elaboration That Might Produce negative effects on the learning of new words. Some Learners may find it distracting or confusing if They are asked to perform other tasks at the same time That They are Trying to commit new words to memory.
5)      Progress from less demanding to more demanding vocabulary-related activities.
Vocabulary learning is most effective when Learners start off with a small group of words, then gradually add more terms as the first ones are Mastered.
The conclusion was that when children acquire new vocabulary that they still do not know, the word should be given frequently and repeatedly in order to fit into their long-term memory. This is intended so that they can remember and master more words that sound familiar.

B.     Theory
Second language can be defined based on the sequence, ie, obtained or learned the language after the child master the language first (B1) or the mother tongue. Language acquisition, as language learning, can be seen from several theories, the theory of acculturation, accommodation theory, discourse theory, the theory of the monitor, competence theory, the theory of universal hypotheses, and theories neurofungsional.
1)        Acculturation Theory
Acculturation is the process of adjustment to a new culture (Brown, 1987:129). These theories view language as a cultural expression of the most obvious and can be observed and that the new acquisition process will be seen from the way people looked at each other between the B1 and B2. Although it may not be so precise, this theory can be used to explain the acquisition process has begun B2 when the child begins to adapt itself to the culture of B2, the use of words such as greeting, voice tone, word choice, and other rules. In this theory, social distance and psychological distance will determine the success of obtaining children.
2)        Theory of Accommodation
B1 and B2 look at the theory, for example, as two distinct groups. This theory attempts to explain the relationship between the two groups is dynamic.
3)        Discourse Theory
       This theory is very suitable to be applied in the context of this conversation. Language acquisition in terms of how children discover the meaning potential through participation in the communication language. Cherry (via Ellis, 1986:259) emphasizes the importance of communication as an effort to develop the rules of language structure.
4)        Monitor Theory
       Theory of Krashen (1977) this view of language acquisition as a constructive creative process. Monitor is a tool used to edit the child's performance (verbal performance) the language. This Monitor work using the competency "learned".

5)        Competence Theory of Variable
       This theory can be seen that the acquisition reflected B2 and how language is used. The product consists of products planned languages ​​(such as mimicking the story or dialogue) and unplanned (such as everyday conversation).

6)        Universal Theory Hypothesis
       This theory believes that there are linguistic universals that determine the course of acquisition B2.
7)        Theory Neurofungsional
       Language acquisition is closely related to the nervous system, particularly Broca's area (area of ​​verbal expressive) and Wernicke's (comprehension area). Nevertheless, the association area, visual, speech and tone also play a role. Thus, the actual language acquisition also involves the brain child and left.
The conclusion was that the language is the source of the most visible cultural expressions and can be observed in the process of language acquisition. The process of language acquisition has begun when the child begins to adapt itself to the language of culture, such as the use of the word of greeting, voice tone, word choice, and other rules.

C. Practice
Practice in second language acquisition, can be done with a variety of existing approaches, including:
1)  The Grammar Translation Approach

This approach had been made to teach Latin, but the next is used to teach various languages. Teachers who use this approach to teaching a second language to first language (mother tongue). Target language is only used a few times. Vocabulary list to the main menu to be memorized by the students, and teachers elaborates with grammar. Usually the material is taken for the discussion of the grammar is difficult texts. Learners are more focused on the analysis of the meaning of the sentence compared to the participants' understanding of the text .The way of trained in using a second language is through translation per-sentence. Pronounciation in this approach is not so emphasized.

2)      The Direct Approach
The emergence of this approach in response to The Grammar Translation Approach is considered incomplete in the process of teaching a second language. In The Direct Approach, teachers could use a second language is taught only as an introduction. First language is not used in the classroom. Teachers usually start learning to make conversation and show pictures. In addition, the grammar is taught in integral is taken from the expression language that is being discussed. Grammar texts are not analyzed, but the meaning. Introduced cultural understanding as well as a very important part in learning a second language.
3)      The Reading Approach
This approach is more intended for academic interest, or in other words for a particular purpose. In addition, The Reading Approach emphasizes the empowerment of learners reading skills. In addition, to trace the history of how the language is spoken. Grammar is taught as it relates and is necessary to understand the contents of the text being read, in addition to fluency in the reading to be one important factor being taught. Pronounciation and speaking abilities, especially in a conversation is not emphasized. In contrast, vocabulary lists and graded according to level of difficulty is given to students for memorized. The goal for students with specific time can have a lot of vocabulary, so that he can easily understand any kind of text.
4)      The Audiolingual Method
This type of approach is used based on the principles of the theory Behavioristic. In addition, this approach is a lot to adapt and direct approach in response to the lack of speaking in reading instruction approach. Teachers deliver the new material by means of dialogue. Recall (memorization), and play expression (mimicry) be one of the main techniques in this approach. Grammar is taught in stages and over and over, as the process of strengthening, in addition to the teaching of grammar taught in integral based on the topics being discussed.
5)      Community Language Learning
This type of approach is somewhat different from previous approaches. Community language learning is intended to relieve anxiety or fear (anxiety) when learners learn a second language. Consequently, this approach emphasizes the direction of regular guidance and counseling rather than teaching. Therefore, teachers are trained counselors who plays as learners.
6)      The Silent Way
This type of approach is used so that learners are more active in learning in the classroom. Teachers are more concentrated in scrutinizing how the students say and how they say it ekspresiekspresi. The teacher was trying to make the students able to pronounce various words by producing the correct word, in addition to practicing spontaneous second language use in any situation.

7)      Functional-Notional Approach
This method is part of the umbrella communicative approach. However, the functional-notional approach emphasizes the organization of the language syllabus. The emphasis is to divide the global concept of language into units of analysis in communication situations that are commonly used by speakers of the language. Teaching is divided into several elements such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns or adjectives. Variations also affect the situation of languages ​​such as dialects, formal and informal.
8)      Total Physical Response
James J. Asher defines the Total Physical Response (TPR) as an approach that combines information and expertise through the use of sensor systems kinestatis. This combination of skills allows learners to assimilate information quickly. The result was brought to the level of motivation of learners.
The conclusion is an understanding of spoken language before developing speaking skills, emphasis on communication of information transfer. Learners are not forced to say, but conditioned to be ready to talk when the students feel comfortable and confident in understanding and producing language. Several techniques can be done by teachers, as teachers themselves demonstrate some expressions that are taught. The teacher asks the students to follow. The teacher asks the students to demonstrate their own. Teachers and students play a role in turn. Teachers and students can expand the production of a new sentence.

Introduction to Prose

Definition of Prose
Prose is the written equivalent of the spoken language.  It is written in words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs and chapters.  It utilizes punctuation, grammar and vocabulary to develop its message. 
According miriam webster
  1. The ordinary language people use in speaking or writing b : a literary medium distinguished from poetry especially by its greater irregularity and variety of rhythm and its closer correspondence to the patterns of everyday speech
  2. A dull or ordinary style, quality, or condition
Prose is a kind of writing distinguished from poetry because of variations in rhythm (rhythm), which has larger and more appropriate language with lexical meaning.
Prose is the most typical form of written language, applying ordinary grammatical structure and natural flow of speech rather than rhythmic structure (as in traditional poetry). The English word "prose" is derived from the Latin prōsa, which literally translates as "straight-forward." While there are critical debates on the construction of prose, its simplicity and loosely defined structure has led to its adoption for the majority of spoken dialogue, factual discourse as well as topical and fictional writing. It is commonly used, for example, in literature, newspapers, magazines, encyclopedias, broadcasting, film, history, philosophy, law and many other forms of communication. Prose First Known Use: 14th century
History of english prose
Old english prose begin with alfred who was seeking to re-establish learning in england after the vikings.
- The anglo saxon period 5th-11th


The amount of surviving Old English prose is much greater than the amount of poetry. Of the surviving prose, sermons and Latin translations of religious works are the majority.  Old English prose first appears in the 9th century, and continues to be recorded through the 12th century as the last generation of scribes, trained as boys in the standardised West Saxon before the Conquest, died as old men.
Prose in medieval England 11th -16th
In the Medieval period can be thought of as a "transitional" period between the Anglo-Saxon and the Renaissance Period. Sometimes called the Middle Ages, the term is used to indicate its position between the classical and modern world. Unlike the previous period of the Anglo-Saxons, the Medieval period, however is completely different. They differ in their languages, cultures, attitudes, and more. Through the study of Medieval society and culture, one can understand the literature written during this prosperous and interesting period in English history.
The renaissance period early 16th –to late 17th
Prose was easily the principal medium in the Elizabethan period, and, despite the mid-century uncertainties over the language's weaknesses and strengths—whether coined and imported words should be admitted; whether the structural modeling of English prose on Latin writing was beneficial or, as Bacon would complain, a pursuit of “choiceness of phrase” at the expense of “soundness of argument”—the general attainment of prose writing was uniformly high, as is often manifested in contexts not conventionally imaginative or “literary,” such as tracts, pamphlets, and treatises. The obvious instance of such casual success is Richard Hakluyt's Principal Navigations, Voyages, and Discoveries of the English Nation (1589; expanded 1598–1600), a massive collection of travelers' tales, of which some are highly accomplished narratives.
Romantic period early 19th
The French Revolution prompted a fierce debate about social and political principles, a debate conducted in impassioned and often eloquent polemical prose. Richard Price's Discourse on the Love of Our Country (1789) was answered by Edmund Burke's conservative Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
Victorian era 19th
Carlyle may be said to have initiated Victorian literature with Sartor Resartus. He continued thereafter to have a powerful effect on its development. The French Revolution (1837), the book that made him famous, spoke very directly to this consciously postrevolutionary age. On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History (1841) combined the Romantic idea of the genius with a further statement of German transcendentalist philosophy, which Carlyle opposed to the influential doctrines of empiricism and utilitarianism. Carlyle's political writing, in Chartism (1839; dated 1840), Past and Present (1843), and the splenetic Latter-Day Pamphlets (1850), inspired other writers to similar “prophetic” denunciations of laissez-faire economics and utilitarian ethics. The first importance of John Ruskin is as an art critic who, in Modern Painters (5 vol., 1843–60), brought Romantic theory to the study of painting and forged an appropriate prose for its expression. But in The Stones of Venice (3 vol., 1851–53), Ruskin took the political medievalism of Carlyle's Past and Present and gave it a poetic fullness and force.
Differences between old and modern prose
Old Prose longer have the forms as follows:
1) Tale, the old literary form that contains the life stories of the gods, fairies, prince or princess of the kingdom, and kings who have a life of extraordinary and magical.
2) History or tiambo, one long prose form that the contents of the story is taken from an historical event that never happened.
3) Tales. old literary form that tells of something extraordinary events and full khavalan, about the gods, fairies, beautiful daughters, and so forth. Functions must be fairy tales as an entertainer. Therefore, the fairy tale story also called solace.
Modern prose
Prose is just the glow of the new society. The works of prose produced by the new Indonesian society began to be flexible and universal, written and illustrated by lively and can be enjoyed by the wider public sphere. modern prose forms, including the following:
  1. Roman contains the story of human life described as specific or detail. Based on its contents, romance novels can be divided into historical, social romance, romance the soul, romance tendencies.
  2. Short Story, is a short essay in the form of narrative. Short piece tells the full human life dispute, touching or exciting, and contain an impression that is not easily forgotten.
  3. The novel, which tells the imaginative essay on the intact side probematika human life or a few figures.
  4. Autobiography, contains the story of the author's personal stories about himself, about his life experiences from childhood until her adulthood.
  5. Biography, contains a story or a story about a person's life experiences from childhood to adulthood, or even to death, written by someone else.
  6. Essay, essay in the form of criticism about a work of literature, art, or field
 

The Consept Of culture

SOME DEFINITIONS
  • Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.
  • Culture is the systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large group of people.
  • Culture is communication, communication is culture.
  • Culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behavior; that is the totality of a person's learned, accumulated experience which is socially transmitted, or more briefly, behavior through social learning.
  • A culture is a way of life of a group of people--the behaviors, beliefs, values, and symbols that they accept, generally without thinking about them, and that are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next.
  • Culture is symbolic communication. Some of its symbols include a group's skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and motives. The meanings of the symbols are learned and deliberately perpetuated in a society through its institutions.  
  • Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the other hand, as conditioning influences upon further action.
  • Culture is the sum of total of the learned behavior of a group of people that are generally considered to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from generation to generation.
  • Culture is a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.
  • THEORY OF CULTURAL DETERMINISM
    • The position that the ideas, meanings, beliefs and values people learn as members of society determines human nature. People are what they learn. Optimistic version of cultural determinism place no limits on the abilities of human beings to do or to be whatever they want. Some anthropologists suggest that there is no universal "right way" of being human. "Right way" is almost always "our way"; that "our way" in one society almost never corresponds to "our way" in any other society. Proper attitude of an informed human being could only be that of tolerance.
    • The optimistic version of this theory postulates that human nature being infinitely malleable, human being can choose the ways of life they prefer.
    • The pessimistic version maintains that people are what they are conditioned to be; this is something over which they have no control. Human beings are passive creatures and do whatever their culture tells them to do. This explanation leads to behaviorism that locates the causes of human behavior in a realm that is totally beyond human control.

    CULTURAL RELATIVISM
    • Different cultural groups think, feel, and act differently. There is no scientific standards for considering one group as intrinsically superior or inferior to another. Studying differences in culture among groups and societies presupposes a position of cultural relativism. It does not imply normalcy for oneself, nor for one's society. It, however, calls for judgment when dealing with groups or societies different from one's own. Information about the nature of cultural differences between societies, their roots, and their consequences should precede judgment and action. Negotiation is more likely to succeed when the parties concerned understand the reasons for the differences in viewpoints.

    CULTURAL ETHNOCENTRISM
    • Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture is superior to that of other cultures. It is a form of reductionism that reduces the "other way" of life to a distorted version of one's own. This is particularly important in case of global dealings when a company or an individual is imbued with the idea that methods, materials, or ideas that worked in the home country will also work abroad. Environmental differences are, therefore, ignored. Ethnocentrism, in relation to global dealings, can be categorized as follows:
      • Important factors in business are overlooked because of the obsession with certain cause-effect relationships in one's own country. It is always a good idea to refer to checklists of human variables in order to be assured that all major factors have been at least considered while working abroad.
      • Even though one may recognize the environmental differences and problems associated with change, but may focus only on achieving objectives related to the home-country. This may result in the loss of effectiveness of a company or an individual in terms of international competitiveness. The objectives set for global operations should also be global.
      • The differences are recognized, but it is assumed that associated changes are so basic that they can be achieved effortlessly. It is always a good idea to perform a cost-benefit analysis of the changes proposed.  Sometimes a change may upset important values and thereby may face resistance from being implemented. The cost of some changes may exceed the benefits derived from the implementation of such changes.

    MANIFESTATIONS OF CULTURE
    Cultural differences manifest themselves in different ways and differing levels of depth. Symbols represent the most superficial and value the deepest manifestations of culture, with heroes and rituals in between.
    • Symbols are words, gestures, pictures, or objects that carry a particular meaning which is only recognized by those who share a particular culture. New symbols easily develop, old ones disappear. Symbols from one particular group are regularly copied by others. This is why symbols represent the outermost layer of a culture.
    • Heroes are persons, past or present, real or fictitious, who possess characteristics that are highly prized in a culture. They also serve as models for behavior.
    • Rituals are collective activities, sometimes superfluous in reaching desired objectives, but are considered as socially essential. They are therefore carried out most of the times for their own sake (ways of greetings, paying respect to others, religious and social ceremonies, etc.).
    • The core of a culture is formed by values. They are broad tendencies for preferences of certain state of affairs to others (good-evil, right-wrong, natural-unnatural). Many values remain unconscious to those who hold them. Therefore they often cannot be discussed, nor they can be directly observed by others. Values can only be inferred from the way people act under different circumstances.
    • Symbols, heroes, and rituals are the tangible or visual aspects of the practices of a culture. The true cultural meaning of the practices is intangible; this is revealed only when the practices are interpreted by the insiders.
    Figure 1. Manifestation of Culture at Different Levels of Depth

    LAYERS OF CULTURE
    People even within the same culture carry several layers of mental programming within themselves. Different layers of culture exist at the following levels:
    • The national level: Associated with the nation as a whole.
    • The regional level: Associated with ethnic, linguistic, or religious differences that exist within a nation.
    • The gender level: Associated with gender differences (female vs. male)
    • The generation level: Associated with the differences between grandparents and parents, parents and children.
    • The social class level: Associated with educational opportunities and differences in occupation.
    • The corporate level: Associated with the particular culture of an organization. Applicable to those who are employed.

    MEASURING CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
    A variable can be operationalized either by single- or composite-measure techniques. A single-measure technique means the use of one indicator to measure the domain of a concept; the composite-measure technique means the use of several indicators to construct an index for the concept after the domain of the concept has been empirically sampled. Hofstede (1997) has devised a composite-measure technique to measure cultural differences among different societies:
    • Power distance index:  The index measures the degree of inequality that exists in a society.
    • Uncertainty avoidance index: The index measures the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain or ambiguous situations.
    • Individualism index: The index measure the extent to which a society is individualistic. Individualism refers to a loosely knit social framework in a society in which people are supposed to take care of themselves and their immediate families only. The other end of the spectrum would be collectivism that occurs when there is a tight social framework in which people distinguish between in-groups and out-groups; they expect their in-groups (relatives, clans, organizations) to look after them in exchange for absolute loyalty.
    • Masculinity index (Achievement vs. Relationship): The index measures the extent to which the dominant values are assertiveness, money and things (achievement), not caring for others or for quality of life. The other end of the spectrum would be femininity (relationship).

    RECONCILIATION OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
    Cultural awareness:
    • Before venturing on a global assignment, it is probably necessary to identify the cultural differences that may exist between one's home country and the country of business operation. Where the differences exist, one must decide whether and to what extent the home-country practices may be adapted to the foreign environment. Most of the times the differences are not very apparent or tangible. Certain aspects of a culture may be learned consciously (e.g. methods of greeting people), some other differences are learned subconsciously (e.g. methods of problem solving). The building of cultural awareness may not be an easy task, but once accomplished, it definitely helps a job done efficiently in a foreign environment.
    • Discussions and reading about other cultures definitely helps build cultural awareness, but opinions presented must be carefully measured. Sometimes they may represent unwarranted stereotypes, an assessment of only a subgroup of a particular group of people, or a situation that has since undergone drastic changes. It is always a good idea to get varied viewpoints about the same culture.
    Clustering cultures:
    • Some countries may share many attributes that help mold their cultures (the modifiers may be language, religion, geographical location, etc.). Based on this data obtained from past cross-cultural studies, countries may be grouped by similarities in values and attitudes. Fewer differences may be expected when moving within a cluster than when moving from one cluster to another.
    Determining the extent of global involvement:
    • All enterprises operating globally need not have the same degree of cultural awareness. Figure 2 illustrates extent to which a company needs to understand global cultures at different levels of involvement. The further a company moves out from the sole role of doing domestic business, the more it needs to understand cultural differences. Moving outward on more than one axis simultaneously makes the need for building cultural awareness even more essential.
    Figure 2. Cultural Awareness and Extent of Global Involvement

    Reference:
    Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw Hill.
    Available in www.tamu.edu/culture

    Some recent publications

    Culture Shock Challenges Firms Looking Abroad
    The U.S. construction industry has always been adept at winning work overseas, but the lure of reconstruction contracts in places like Afghanistan and Iraq could draw some firms in over their heads. Large international firms have many resources to deal with the enormous challenges of working in the global marketplace. But the massive reconstruction of countries devastated by war could trip up the best of them.
    Political and physical risks are the most treacherous and must be reckoned with. Language and cultural differences can't be ignored either. Addressing them sensibly can unlock many opportunities for success.
    The U.S. government's conference on rebuilding Afghanistan, held in Chicago last week, went a long way to outline opportunities there. These outreach programs are a good start because many firms need an education on how to work abroad. The first lesson is to drop ethnocentric views that the world should accommodate our method of contracting rather than the other way around.
    In a separate meeting, also held in Chicago last week, ENR brought together construction executives at its annual leadership conference. U.S. firms interested in China's Olympic building plans and other work, particularly those willing to listen patiently through translation, heard rich detail from Chinese representatives.
    Patience, attentiveness and sensitivity are not common construction traits, but they can help in cultures different from our own.
    Language and cultural differences can be treacherous to negotiate.
    [ ENR (2003). Culture shock challenges firms looking abroad. Vol. 250, No. 23. New York: McGraw Hill.]

What is Culture?

( Douglas-Brown, 1994)
Culture is "Glue" that bends a group of people together".
Artinya adalah : Sebuah budaya dengan segenap feature / cirri khasnya memiliki kekeuatan untuk mempersatukan masyarakat, oaring-oarang atau kelompok orang yang ada di dalam sebuah masyarakat tertentu"

( Linda Harklou, 1999 )
"Culture is an elusive / unclear construct that shift constantly over time and according to two is perceiving and interpreting it."
Artinya adalah : Budaya adalah sebuah pola yang rumit atau kompleks yang senantiasa berubah sepanjang waktu aecara terus-menerus dan tergantung dengan masyarakat yang menginterpretasikannya"

( Seelve, 1984-1993 )
Culture is a broad concept that embraces all aspects of human life. It includes everything people learn to do. It is everything human have learned. Culture shapes our thoughts and actions and often does so with a heavy need.
Artinya adalah : Budaya adalah sebuah konsep yang menerima segala aspek kehidupan manusia. Termasuk segala hal yang dipelajari untuk dilakukan oleh manusia. Budaya adalah segala hal yang dipelajari oleh manusia. Dan budaya memiliki kekuatan untuk membentuk pola piker manusia serta membentuk teindakan manusia.
Contoh :
Masyarakat yang tinggal di Lingkungan Pesisir memiliki logat yang lebih kasar
Daripada masyarakat yang tinggal di pegunungan,sehingga budaya akan membentuk pikiran kita, dulu yang didatangi penjajah adalah orang peisir.

( General Meaning )
"Culture is defined as the shared patterns of behaviors and interactions cognitive construct and affective understanding that are learned through a process of socialization.
Artinya adalah : Budaya merupakan sebuah pola gabungan atau kombinasi antara perilaku dan interaksi cognitive dan pemahaman afektif / budi pekerti yang dipelajari melalui proses sosialisasi.
Another Definition of Culture
Culture as Everything in Human Life ( Culture BBV )
BBV = Belief, Behaviors and Values.
Culture as the best in human life restricted to the elitists ( Culture MLA )
MLA = Music, Literature and Art of the Country
Example :
- Cheating is akind of Culture. Belief if You cheat you will get better score, Value is group of people.
- Corruption is also a kind of Culture. Belief if you do corruption you will get a lot of money, and Value is group of people.

 
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